Excluding Russia, the dominant countries of Asia are China, India, and Japan. Using a variety of sources, I have estimated populations and numbers of engineers as of 1985: (Table)

These estimates are only very approximate. They nevertheless indicate that density of engineers in China and India may be about the same, but greater by a factor of ten in the US and twenty in Japan. The development of professional engineering will be influenced by such different densities, as well as by educational traditions and the ability of engineers to form free associations. Consider, then, the following notes on particular cases.

China. Given the relatively low density of engineers in China and the authoritarian character of the Chinese political system, it is not surprising that no Chinese technical society yet has an explicit code of ethics. What is surprising, is that the regulations of the Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society imply something like such a code.

The regulations are divided into nine chapters. Chapter One consists of general rules, the third of which states that the Society "encourages dialectical materialism" along with "mechanical industry, rising technological service," and the "acceleration of new technological research," as well as the production of more scientists and the "speeding up of modernization." The chapter also gives the Society the duty to promote technological exchange, to pursue scientific research, to be worthy of the trust of companies and agencies by offering accurate technical information, to expand technical training, to advance technological and scientific management, to control technological information, to honor the scientist and technical reporter, to contribute to society, and to protect the rights of technicians, listening to their suggestions, ideas, and criticism.

Hong Kong's engineers differ from others in China. Located in a British Crown Colony, the Hong Kong Institution of Engineers (HKIE) originally developed not just on the British model but as a branch of British professional organization. With the realization that Hong Kong would be returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1997, local engineers in the 1970s began to provide Hong Kong with a truly independent engineering association. That has involved some intense discussion of professional ethics, with a special conference in 1980 on "Professional Ethics in the Modern World."

In 1984 the HKIE formally adopted "Rules of Conduct" that differed in important respects from those of its British parent organization. For example, although the primary rule remained responsibility to the profession, it was modified by the following statement: "When working in a country other than Hong Kong [the Hong Kong engineer should] order his conduct according to the existing recognized standards of conduct in that country, except that he should abide by these rules as applicable in the presence of local standards."

The reason for this modification was spelled out at an inter-professional symposium in December, 1985. F.Y. Kan of the Hong Kong Institute of Surveyors identified the role of his professional association as the promotion of the status of surveyors and the usefulness of the profession. "So far," he said, "the role has not changed but, with the Sino-British agreement in operation [to return Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty], there might be far-reaching effects on the professions. There is, therefore, a need to break away from UK qualifications. However, professional competence must be maintained and this could bring institutions into the political field."

India. India provides another example of the influence of British professional engineering organizations, but the result has not been the same as in Hong Kong.

The Indian National Academy of Engineering requires all members to sign the following statement: "As a Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering, I shall follow the code of ethics, maintain integrity in research and publications, uphold the cause of Engineering and the dignity of the Academy, endeavor to be objective in judgement, and strive for the enrichment of human values and thoughts."

The idea of a personally signed pledge to uphold an ethics code seems much stronger than anything that exists in China-or in the US, for that matter. On the other hand, "code of ethics" does not refer to any explicit formulation but simply to general principles. It is not felt necessary to spell out exactly what "the code of ethics" includes.

Japan. Engineering ethics in Japan exhibits a different character. Engineering professionally organized only after World War II and did so in much closer association with science. In Japan, science and engineering are not separate enterprises as they are in the US.

The first and most influential code-like document is the "Statement of Atomic Research in Japan." Issued in 1954 by the Japanese Science Council QSC)-which includes both scientists and engineers-this statement sets forth what have become known as "The Three Principles for the Peaceful Use of Atomic Energy": All research shall be conducted with full openness, democratically administered, and carried out under the autonomous control of the Japanese themselves.

These principles reflect the desire of Japanese during the 1950s to distance themselves from American interests and policy. Immediately after World War II, the US prohibited all Japanese research in aviation, atomic energy, and other war-related fields. But by 1951, following the Communist victory in China and the outbreak of the Korean War, US policy began encouraging militaryrelated science and engineering and the incorporation of Japan into the Western alliance. (The Allied occupation ended in 1952.)

Japanese scientists and engineers recognized that the Three Principles were in opposition to, for example, the US policy of secrecy in atomic research. Indeed, in order to avoid possible opposition, the JSC initially did not translate the Principles into English. Though formulated by scientists and engineers themselves, the Principles were readily adopted by the government, suggesting the greater social prestige and political influence of the Japanese technical community in comparison with the American.

Recently, new interest in ethics has developed among scientists and engineers, an interest exhibiting more of the characteristics found in the US since the 1970s. This is illustrated, for instance, by the "Charter for Scientists" of 1980, which proclaims a responsibility on the part of scientists and engineers to promote sound scientific development and to help educate the public about important issues related to scientific and technological development.

Conclusion. This piece is based on research conducted under a recent Ethics and Values Studies Program grant from the US National Science Foundation (NDIR8721980). The codes and other materials referred to can be found in Engineering Ethics Throughout the World (STS Program, University Park, PA: STS Press, 1992).